When answering this question we have to break it down into two parts.
Because the reality is, that wherever you think your solar panels have come from, in all likelihood, at least a part of those panels will have been produced in China.
In fact, according to a 2022 report by the IEA, China is the dominant producer at every stage of the global solar supply chain.
In other words, for every material and at every stage of the supply chain, China is way ahead of every other country in the world.
As you might have guessed, the short answer is that in nearly every instance, China is the major producer of raw materials used for the production of solar panels.
But let’s break these materials down first to give a bit of context.
99% of any solar panel is produced from 7 different raw materials.
These are silicon, which makes up 75 to 85 percent of the panel, glass, aluminium, EVA, copper, silver and a back sheet, which is made from a combination of polymers.
Let's start with silicon.
Silicon is the primary component in the production of solar panels.
To be more specific, the particular type of silicon needed for solar production is called polysilicon. This is a high-purity form of silicon and is produced by heating metallurgical-grade silicon (MGS) to high temperatures in the presence of coal.
Although Polysilicon is an abundant resource, 83% of this raw material is produced in China, while 45% is produced by one region alone, called the Xinjiang region.
The other 17% is produced by a number of different countries, with Germany the next biggest producer at 6.9%, followed by the USA at 6.1%. The final 4.1% is contributed by a combination of countries from around the world.
Glass is produced all over the world and is created from widely available silica which is a highly abundant type of sand.
China is by far the market leader in solar photovoltaic (PV) glass, with a capacity that reaches 64,000 metric tons (MT) per day (2022).
The Asia Pacific market is also the fastest-growing in the world, meaning it’s set to stay at the forefront of solar glass production for the foreseeable.
China also leads the way in Aluminium production, a core material in the creation of solar panel frames and other components in the panel.
Europe used to be a major player in this market but has lost more than 65% of its production capacity due to a combination of rising energy prices and other factors.
China on the other hand now has a 60% share in primary aluminium production making it the biggest player globally.
It’s starting to sound like a familiar story, but China is also the leader in EVA production.
The whole Asian Pacific market currently makes up 65% of the total global share, followed by North America, Europe and the Middle East.
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate is produced from crude oil and natural gas and is formed through a series of chemical reactions and steam cracking.
The EVA is then applied to the photovoltaic cells providing protection and support for the finished solar panel.
Copper is an important element in any solar panel. Due to its high capacity to conduct heat and electricity as well as its high abundance, copper is a prime material for use in solar panels.
In particular, copper is used in the heat exchangers and wiring within photovoltaic panels.
Furthermore, new solar technology is being developed that uses copper instead of silver in the production of solar panels. If your interested to find out more about developments in the solar industry check out our article on the future of solar.
Unlike the materials so far listed, China is not the primary producer of copper. Instead, Chilli is the global leader in copper production having contributed 5,831,600 metric tons in 2018.
In 2023 the production of solar panels contributed to 13.8% of total silver usage worldwide.
This figure doesn’t look like it will be declining either, with Bloomberg predicting that by 2030 solar panels will consume about 20% of total global silver.
Silver is a key part of solar panel production. Finely powdered silver is mixed into a paste to produce a type of printable ink.
This paste is then applied to silicon wafers to form the fine grid lines (fingers) and busbars that collect and conduct electricity generated by the solar cells.
When it comes to global production, once again China isn’t the leader (although it does take second place), with 25% of silver production coming from Mexico.
Solar back sheets are made from a combination of materials and are globally produced.
That being said, some of the major producers are China, Vietnam and India, while the US and Europe also contribute.
Once all these raw materials are mined and prepared they then need to be assembled into the final solar panel.
This process is often completed internationally with multiple different manufacturers involved in the assembly process.
China is the world's largest manufacturer and assembler of solar panels. The country has a well-established supply chain and infrastructure for solar panel production.
As well as manufacturing and assembling their own panels they also provide assembly services for other companies based outside China.
Key Companies:
Production Centres: Key production centres are located in provinces like Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, and Guangdong.
The U.S. has several solar panel assembly facilities, although much of the cell production may still be imported.
Despite this, it is possible to find some purely US-based manufacturing plants that don’t get any of their materials from China.
These are listed below.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Significant facilities are located in states such as California, Ohio, and Arizona.
It’s worth noting that there are a number of non-American companies such as Jinko Solar and Mission Solar that have set up manufacturing plants in the US. So while these companies are not American, their panels are American-made.
Germany has a strong history in solar technology and maintains several high-quality assembly operations.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Key locations include Freiberg and Bitterfeld-Wolfen.
South Korea has some advanced manufacturing facilities for high-efficiency solar panels.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Key facilities are in Seoul and Chungcheongbuk-do.
Japan is known for high-quality and innovative solar panel production.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Key production facilities are located in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo.
Taiwan specialises in producing high-efficiency solar cells and assembling them into panels.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Major facilities are located in Hsinchu and Tainan.
India is rapidly expanding its solar manufacturing capabilities to meet domestic and international demand.
Key Companies:
Production Centers: Key production hubs are in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
Southeast Asia:
Countries like Vietnam, Malaysia, and Thailand have become important centres for solar panel assembly due to lower labour costs and favourable trade conditions.
Europe:
Apart from Germany, countries like Spain and Italy also have assembly operations.
South America:
Brazil is emerging as a solar panel assembler, catering to the growing demand in Latin America.
The majority of solar panels are not made in the UK. There are some manufacturers that are predominantly UK-based, however, even these tend to outsource much of their manufacture to subcontractors outside the UK.
The only Made in Britain verified solar manufacturer is GB-Sol, who manufacture their panels from plants based in South Wales.
80% of all solar panels are made (at least in part) in China. However, does this actually matter?
Let's take a look.
There are essentially three major concerns with China having such a dominant grip on the solar industry. The first of these is ethical, the second is environmental and the third is economic.
In each case, you will have to weigh up the merits of each argument and decide for yourself if this influences your purchasing decisions.
One of the biggest challenges facing green tech, including solar, is down to how raw materials are mined.
As we’ve established, China is the major provider of solar panels worldwide. However, China also has some of the poorest ethical standards, especially in how it looks after its workers.
Earlier in this article we mentioned that the Xinjiang region alone contributes to 45% of global polysilicon.
The issue is that there is extensive evidence to suggest that men and women in this region are being forced into slave labour to mine this resource which is essential for solar panel production.
There are companies such as Jinko Solar that are trying to move away from unethical sources, however, a lot of change still needs to happen.
Alongside solar panel production, many of the batteries used in EVs and for solar energy storage are also ethically questionable.
There have been reports of human rights abuses in the mining of cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, one of the major sources of cobalt used in batteries globally.
The whole idea of solar panels is to enable a transition away from fossil fuels and produce environmentally sustainable energy.
On the surface, solar panels look like a great way of achieving these green targets, however, there are a number of environmental issues that also come with the consumption of solar tech.
The first issue comes down to how solar panels are produced.
During the refining process in which polysilicon is made, MGS has to be heated in the presence of coal. During this process, the carbon from the coal reacts with the oxygen in the silica producing a combination of carbon monoxide and CO2 that is released into the atmosphere.
Furthermore, the whole process of mining and producing coal further supports the fossil fuel industry.
This is the same for all the materials in the solar panel production cycle, all of which need to be mined and refined, a process that is supported by fossil fuels.
China in particular relies on large coal-powered stations to generate the necessary energy for its global supply of solar panels. In fact, coal alone is responsible for generating over 60% of the electricity used for global solar PV manufacturing.
Furthermore, China is known to have low environmental standards, often prioritising its industry over the health of the natural landscape.
On top of this, there is the significant carbon footprint associated with shipping solar parts internationally.
Where possible trying to buy panels that have been produced locally is far better, however, do check that they are actually manufactured in your country.
Most solar panels are produced internationally with different parts built and assembled in different countries. This also adds to the carbon footprint.
Yet despite all this, it’s worth remembering that when you measure the carbon footprint of solar panels against fossil fuel alternatives, solar is still by far the better option, producing 20 times less carbon emissions than the coal equivalent.
Due to China’s dominance in the global solar market, this creates a more vulnerable global supply chain.
China has significant control over the price of solar panels and has the ability to massively change global prices if it decides to. This puts other countries in a weakened position where they are reliant on China’s solar supply.
The other angle to this is that by purchasing panels from China, or any other country, you are investing in that country's economy. If you want to support the economic development of your own country and your own national industry then it’s better to try and buy local products and support local businesses.
Purchasing foreign panels makes it more difficult for smaller more local companies to succeed.
The reality of the solar industry is that wherever you decide to buy your panels, you will be making use of a global supply chain that produces a product that is very rarely localised to one region.
Whether your panels are branded as American, Chinese, British or Indian, you’ll be pushed to find a finished product that is solely produced in one place.
This is the problem and the strength of the solar industry.
A better way to approach buying solar panels is to think about the total carbon footprint and the general practices of the manufacturer you are using.
One often under-considered dimension to this supply chain is the importance of recycling. Many of the materials used in solar panels can be reused and recycled which can have a big impact on the environmental footprint of those panels.
Perhaps a better question to ask, rather than where were these panels made is, how many of the materials used were recycled and how do you dispose of old panels?
At the end of the day, producing any new material does incur a carbon price, but if you are smart with how you spend your money and support the most sustainable manufacturers, you can help to further decarbonise the solar industry and support the global transition away from fossil fuels.
If you're interested in getting into the solar industry as an installer, we've covered everything you need to know in our article on how to become a solar panel installer.
52% of global solar panels are manufactured in China.
These rates are even higher when you break the panels down into their component parts, with China producing 85% of solar cells, 97% of wafers and 79 to 83% of polysilicon.
Coal is needed in the production of solar panels.
There are two reasons for this.
Firstly coal is used as a reducing agent to remove oxygen impurities from silica and turn it into silicon, which is the primary material used in solar panels.
Secondly, coal is used to produce the energy needed to create and assemble solar panels.
However, as more green sources of energy are built into national infrastructure the reliance on coal for this aspect of solar panel production will go down.
According to a report by the International Energy Agency, over the last 10 years, solar PV manufacturing has contributed over 51900 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide. This accounts for 0.15% of energy-related emissions globally.
China alone is responsible for 87% of global emissions produced by solar manufacturing.
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